1. Identify children and young people at risk

1.1 – Observe signs and indicators to identify children, families, and young people at risk of domestic violence, abuse, and neglect 

1.2 – Collect information and document signs and indicators of abuse following legislative requirements and organizational policies and procedures.

By the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to:

1. Identify and observe the signs and indicators of abuse and neglect 
2. Ask open and non-leading questions to find out the information needed
3. Use the correct child protection procedures to report a child protection matter.   

   Signs and indicators

When identifying children, families, and young people at risk, it is important to observe the signs and indicators that may indicate they are being abused or neglected. It can be difficult for young victims to talk about what is happening to them as they may be scared, embarrassed, or may not understand it or know it is wrong. Children or young people experiencing abuse may show it through their behavior, emotions, or physical. 

Child abuse

This is defined as any behavior that harms a child or young person physically or emotionally. It may have been a single incident or abuse that has happened for a long time. Whether it was done intentionally or in intentionally, it is still classed as child abuse. There are different types of child abuse, including physical, emotional, sexual, and neglect and you must understand what each one means.

The different types, indicators, and dynamics of abuse are:

• Emotional – this means using inappropriate words or symbolic acts to hurt or damage a child or person emotionally and mentally. For example, this may involve name-calling, rejecting, frightening, or putting them down and making them lack confidence. Emotional abuse can have psychological impacts, such as causing depression and anxiety. 
• Psychological – this is when someone makes you or other people question your sanity or recollection of reality through lying and manipulation. It is behavior that aims to cause emotional or mental harm. Psychological and emotional abuse often occur in tandem; however, psychological maltreatment is slightly different. Examples of psychological abuse include someone telling you that things didn’t happen when they did (often referred to as gaslighting), telling you that you are crazy or have mental health problems, and telling you that you are imagining or exaggerating their behavior. They may also tell you or other people (friends, doctors, police, counselors) that you are the one being abusive towards them when you are not. 
• Sexual – this is when a person uses power or authority to force or persuade a child or young person into sexual activities. There are two types of sexual abuse – contact and non-contact abuse. Sexual abuse can happen in person or online. This can include acts that involve physical contact, such as assault by penetration, or non-penetrative acts, such as kissing and touching. It also includes exposing children or young people to pornography and sexual images or encouraging them to act up.  
• Neglect means failing to provide the child or young person with necessities such as food, clothing, shelter, medical attention, or supervision. Without these necessities, a child’s physical and emotional development and well-being will be seriously affected. They may be starved, underweight, have little clothing, or may have cuts or illnesses that have not been treated. 
• Parental – this is any behavior used by a young person to control, dominate, or coerce their parents. It is intended to threaten and intimidate them and put their safety at risk. This type of abuse may be verbal, psychological, or physical. For example, it may include yelling, screaming, and swearing in an abusive way, playing mind games, or pushing, hitting, or throwing objects around the house. Many abused parents will struggle to admit that their child is being abusive as they may feel embarrassed, ashamed, and disappointed. They may also blame themselves for the situation or be in denial convincing themselves this is normal adolescent behaviour. 

• Prenatal – This is when women experience physical or emotional abuse during their pregnancy from a partner, ex-partner, or family member. This is also referred to as domestic violence, which is a pattern of abusive behavior by a current or former spouse or partner that is used to exert power and control over another person. This may include physical violence such as slapping, punching, kicking, using weapons, or striking a woman’s belly to harm the pregnancy. It may also include forcing the pregnant woman to smoke, drink alcohol, or take drugs, or stopping them from going to prenatal appointments or receiving other pregnancy-related medical care.
• Witnessing domestic violence – this is when a child or young person experiences a parent or sibling being subjected to abuse in their home or experiences the damage caused to a person or property by violent behavior.

In most cases, children are abused by their parents or carers of either sex, but it could also be a family member, friend, or someone from school or the local area. Abuse can damage a child in many ways and can affect them through to adulthood. If a child or young person is unhappy or stressed, this usually affects how they behave. These behavioral or physical signs are known as indicators, and you must recognize the signs and find out what the root cause is. 

However, if a child displays any of these behaviors, it doesn’t necessarily mean they are being abused; it is also important to take into consideration their age and vulnerabilities. For example, they may have a disability or illness that causes certain behaviors or symptoms. The lists below are not exhaustive, but they are indicators to look out for. 

Some indicators of child abuse include:

• Being wary or distrusting of adults 
• Rocking, sucking, or biting excessively 
• Bedwetting or soiling 
• Demanding or aggressive behavior 
• Sleeping difficulties – tired and falling asleep
• Low self-esteem and confidence 
• Difficulty relating to adults and peers 
• Abusing alcohol or drugs 
• Being accident prone 
• Broken bones or unexplained bruising, burns, or welts in different stages of healing 
• Being unable to explain any injuries or providing unbelievable or vague explanations
• Feeling suicidal or attempting to commit suicide 
• Having difficulty concentrating or focusing 
• Being withdrawn 
• Being overly obedient 
• Reluctant to go home 
• Creating stories, poems, or artwork about abuse

Some indicators of neglect include:

• Malnutrition, begging, stealing or hoarding food
• Poor hygiene, matted hair, dirty unwashed skin, or body odour
• Unattended physical or medical problems 
• Comments from the child indicating no one is home to look after them, or they are not being cared for properly 
• Being constantly tired or unable to focus 
• Frequent lateness, absence, or truancy from school 
• Inappropriate clothing for the time of year 
• Ripped, damaged, or old clothing 
• Frequent illnesses, infections, or sores
• Being left unsupervised for long periods.

Protective and risk factors

There are several risk factors or attributes that are commonly associated with maltreatment. The main risk factors for victims of abuse or neglect include any reason that an individual might be dependent on someone else for their care. This includes young age, old age, chronic illness, mental illness, and physical disabilities. 

Age

Age, health, and physical, mental, emotional, and social development are factors that may increase a child’s vulnerability to maltreatment. For example, infants and young children, due to their small physical size and need for constant care, can be more vulnerable to certain types of mistreatment, such as abuse and physical or medical neglect. They spend the majority of their time being cared for in domestic settings. The demands of caring for children may overwhelm some parents and therefore put the child at risk. 

Older children come into contact with a wide range of adults because they are involved with fewer home-based activities and spend more time away from home. For example, they spend time at school, in sports clubs, leisure and social activities. Therefore, they are more vulnerable to abuse perpetrated by a non-family member. 

Gender

Gender also influences the type of maltreatment children are likely to experience. Girls are statistically more likely to be victim of child sexual abuse than boys, and boys are more likely to be physically abused than girls. These findings are based on recorded crime data in Australia from 2003, which showed that of victims of sexual assault under 15 years of age, 76% were female, and 24% were male (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2004).

Disability

Children with disabilities and special needs can also be at higher risk for abuse or neglect from organizations such as out-of-home care providers. This is because challenging behaviors and burdens can lead to frustration on the part of a caregiver and harm to the child. Children with disabilities may be in the care of babysitters or in residential treatment facilities, placed with caregivers who do not know the child or are not able to cope with the behaviors as well as the child’s parents. Vulnerability also contributes to this risk due to children’s cognitive impairment and inability to communicate clearly with others. 

Culture

Culture is another factor that influences the risk of maltreatment. There is evidence to suggest that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children are more vulnerable to maltreatment than non-Indigenous children. In Australia, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children are over-represented in referrals to statutory child protection services and out-of-home care. Rates of child sexual abuse are also much higher in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities than in non-Indigenous communities. The heightened risk may be because children of this culture are more likely to reside in out-of-home care because of health issues or disabilities. Therefore, they are more vulnerable to maltreatment in organizational settings. 

Sexuality

The sexuality of children and young people also influences their risk of maltreatment. Children who identify as LGBTQ+ or are in the process of understanding their sexual and/or gender identity can be at risk of feeling socially isolated and alienated from their peers. This fear and uncertainty could make them more vulnerable to perpetrators who might take advantage of this vulnerability and convince the child that they are the only one who understands and accepts them. A child who is afraid to open up to their parents about their sexuality may be less likely to disclose this abuse as the perpetrator can use their secret against them to prevent them from reporting it. 

Protective factors

Protective factors are certain conditions or attributes that may reduce the likelihood of children being abused or neglected. These may be conditions or attributes in individuals, families, and communities that promote the health and well-being of children and families. Identifying these factors can help parents and caregivers find resources and support that emphasize these strengths, as well as identify areas where they might need assistance. Overall, this reduces the chances of child abuse and neglect. 

Protective factors include:

• Caregivers who create safe, positive relationships with children from a young age
• Caregivers who practice nurturing parenting skills and provide emotional support
• Caregivers who can meet the basic needs of food, shelter, education, and health services
• Caregivers who have a college degree or higher and have steady employment.

Individuals who have self-regulation skills are less likely to experience abuse. This refers to a youth’s ability to manage or control their emotions and behaviors, which may include anger management, character, self-control, and emotional intelligence. These skills are more likely to develop with age, provided they have been brought up in a safe and positive home environment. 

Relational skills refer to a youth’s ability to form positive connections with others and their interpersonal skills, e.g. communication and conflict resolution skills. Problem-solving skills refer to a youth’s adaptive functioning skills and their ability to solve problems. These are all protective skills as they are related to positive outcomes such as resiliency, having supportive family and friends, positive school performance, social skills, and good cognitive functioning. Children and young people who have developed more positive life skills and are involved in positive activities are less likely to experience negative outcomes, which could lead to maltreatment. Factors such as disabilities and special needs are likely to affect children’s ability to develop these skills.

Establishing rapport

When working with children and young people, a good rapport can help build psychological safety and trust. There are many ways to build rapport with a child, such as playing with them, listening, or spending quality time getting to know them. Children find it difficult to talk about what they are feeling and going through; they communicate more through play. You could also give them praise and encourage them to make choices instead of telling them what to do. Building rapport helps you to learn more about the child, such as finding out their likes and dislikes, personality, and behaviors. However, building rapport with children can take time. 

The most important to focus on is providing a safe, non-threatening, and trusting environment where the child can start to feel like they can talk, process, and play out what is happening to them in their lives. A range of factors, such as a child’s age, emotional state, maturity disabilities, etc., can also influence the time it takes to build rapport and connect. 

Building rapport with a young person is a crucial first step in developing a trusting relationship where they feel they can talk to you. Working with young people requires an understanding of the unique emotional, psychological, and cognitive changes of adolescence. Their age, maturity, and cultural background will also impact the approach you need to take when communicating with them. Many young people will be anxious and nervous about seeing a service provider; therefore, you will need to approach them with warmth and openness and spend time building rapport to help you form a connection. It may take time for a young person to feel comfortable and develop trust in your relationship with them. 

You will need to engage with the person, be yourself, and show genuine interest and understanding in what they are going through. Reflecting on the feelings they are expressing can be a useful technique for building rapport and helping them understand what they are experiencing. You should also show respect and understanding for their culture and lifestyle. Think about your verbal and non-verbal communication, including your body language, and make sure it is open and non-threatening. You should be open and honest with them about confidentiality. 

Asking questions 

Children or young people experiencing abuse often struggle to talk and communicate about it, especially if they are very young, so it can be difficult to find the information you need. It is best to use open and non-leading questions to make them feel more comfortable and encourage them to give reliable answers. These questions usually start with what, why, where, or how, prompting a response more than yes or no so you can find out what the child knows and what they are feeling. 

Examples of open and non-leading questions to ask:

• When did this happen?
• What did the person do?
• Can you tell me a bit more about that?
• Have you told anyone else about this?
• Where did this happen?
• How did it make you feel?

You should avoid asking children leading and direct questions as it can confuse them or make them feel uncomfortable and stop them from speaking to you. The questions are often too direct and inappropriate to use when discussing this matter with a child.

If you are unable to speak to the child, it is worth speaking to the parents and asking them questions, as you may be able to judge by their responses or body language whether there is anything you should be concerned about. 

Active listening techniques

Active listening is a skill that can be used to help improve your communication with children and young people. It is about not just hearing the child but tuning into their thoughts and feelings. Using active listening can strengthen communication and improve relationships with children as it shows them that you care and are interested. It can also help you learn and understand more about them. Active listening involves letting the child talk, showing you are interested and understanding, and summarising their words and feelings back to them. The techniques used may vary depending on the age of the child. You should make sure you are communicating in an age-appropriate way that they will understand.

Active listening techniques include:

• Giving the child or young person your full attention, e.g. by sitting close when they are speaking, making eye contact, and using non-verbal language to show you are listening
• Let them do the talking without interrupting 
• Show them that you are interested by nodding your head and giving verbal feedback
• When they have finished talking, ask questions that show interest
• Summarise their words and feelings to show you have been listening and are trying to understand. Try repeating what the child has said in your own words
• Avoid making judgments and respect their point of view. 

Child protection procedures 

It is important if you have any concerns or worries about a child or young person that, you contact a local Child Protection Service and ask them for assistance and advice. Statutory child protection in Australia is the responsibility of state and territory governments. This information is stated on the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare government website: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports-data/health-welfare-services/child-protection/overview# 

‘Departments responsible for child protection will assist vulnerable children who are suspected of being abused, neglected, or harmed, or whose parents are unable to provide adequate care or protection. Contacts made to these departments regarding allegations of child abuse or neglect, child maltreatment, or harm to a child are called notifications.’

Notifications

Notifications made to these departments will be assessed to determine if intervention is required and to what level. The investigation will involve the department obtaining more detailed information about the child and making an assessment of the level of harm to the child and their protective needs. This may involve meeting and interviewing the child if it is practical to do so. The investigation aims to determine whether the notification is substantiated or not substantiated. A substantiation would indicate ‘there is sufficient reason to believe that a child has been, is being, or is likely to be, abused, neglected or otherwise harmed.’ 

Protecting children

The department would then try to ensure the safety of the child through an appropriate level of involvement. The child may be placed on a care and protection order, which is a legal order giving child protection departments some responsibility for a child’s welfare. They may also be placed into out-of-home care, which is overnight care for children up to 17 years old. 

Reporting a child protection matter

To report a child protection matter, you should contact the relevant agency responsible for child protection in your state or territory. However, if a child is in immediate danger or a life-threatening situation, you would need to call 000.

Here is a list of the child protection authorities across states and territories in Australia:

State/Territory	Department	Website/Contact
New South Wales	Department of Communities & Justice	Tel. 132 111 www.community.nsw.gov.au/preventing-child-abuse-and-neglect/reporting-suspected-abuse-or-neglect
Victoria	Department of Families, Fairness, and Housing	Tel. 131 278 (after-hours emergency) https://services.dffh.vic.gov.au/reporting-child-abuse
Queensland	Department of Children, Youth Justice and Multicultural Affairs	Tel. 1800 177 135 (after hours and weekends) https://www.cyjma.qld.gov.au/protecting-children/reporting-child-abuse
Western Australia	Department of Communities	Tel. 1800 273 889 a/h: 1800 199 008 https://www.wa.gov.au/organisation/department-of-communities/child-protection
South Australia	Department for Education	Tel. 131 478  https://www.education.sa.gov.au/schools-and-educators/child-protection/reporting-child-abuse
Tasmania	Department of Health	Tel. 1800 000 123 https://www.health.tas.gov.au/health-topics/child-and-youth-health/child-safety-and-wellbeing/mandatory-reporting-department-health-staff
Australian Capital Territory	Community Services Directorate	Tel. 1300 556 729 https://www.communityservices.act.gov.au/ocyfs
Northern Territory	Department of Territory, Families, Housing and Communities	Tel. 1800 700 250 https://tfhc.nt.gov.au/contacts/report-child-abuse-or-neglect

1.3 – Use communication and information-gathering techniques with children and young people according to organizational policies and procedures.

By the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to:

Good communication 

Communication is important for building trust and respect with children, and it will help you find out what they are thinking and feeling. However, it can be difficult to communicate with children, get your message across, and find out the information you need. They may not always understand what you are asking or give reliable answers. For example, if you ask something direct like ‘Did your parents do this to you’, this would be a leading question that could cause them to say yes even if it wasn’t true. So it is best to ask open and non-leading questions, such as ‘How did you get that bruise?’ to get the best response and make them feel more comfortable. 

The principle for communion with the children:

• It should be age-appropriate and child-friendly – using appropriate language, characters, stories, music, and humor is important when communicating with children. They will all have different needs and interests and will learn in different ways, so it is important to treat them as an individual and think of the best way to communicate.
• It should address the child holistically – all aspects of child development are interconnected, such as physical, social, emotional, and cognitive. Communication should balance and give attention to their specific development needs.
• It should be positive and strengths-based – communication should focus on portraying and nurturing the child’s strengths and potential instead of their problems. This will help the child to build self-confidence and competence, allowing them to be more imaginative and see possibilities.
• It should address the needs and abilities of all – communication should help the child to see themselves positively and as equal to others. It should positively portray and value all children from different cultures, ethnic groups, and backgrounds.

Information-gathering techniques

When communicating and gathering information from a child, it is important to provide them with the support they need and to be patient. You may not be able to gather all the information you need in one conversation as it could be too much for the child to take, and they may struggle to pay attention. Make sure you sit down and talk to children at their eye level, and if they don’t want to make eye contact with you when they are talking, you could play a game together to give them something to do. Use open and non-leading questions when talking to them and get them to tell you about things instead of assuming; for example, instead of asking them, ‘Are you scared and unhappy at home’ say, ‘How do you feel when you’re at home’. Actively listen to them throughout the conversation and let them know that you believe what they’re saying.

Tips for communicating and information-gathering with children:

• Talk to the child at their eye level so you’re not looking down on them
• Keep them occupied throughout the conversation by playing a game 
• Use open and non-leading questions when speaking to them
• Lean towards them to show empathy and make them feel more comfortable
• Make eye contact with them when you can 
• Sit comfortably and relax while you’re talking to them
• Be patient and allow them time to talk
• If they seem uncomfortable or they’re losing interest, don’t be pushy with them
• Make notes whenever you can so you remember what they said. 

Once you have gathered enough information and reasonably believe that the child is being abused or neglected, this would need to be reported to your supervisor or manager and a child protection agency. They will need to interview the child again, so it is best not to spend too long talking to the child and asking them questions as they will have to go through it again. If the child is too young and isn’t yet verbal, you would need to observe them and look out for any signs and symptoms of abuse to be able to assess whether something needs to be reported. In this case, you may also need to speak to their parents and gather more information from them to make the decision.